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114 - An-Nas (The Mankind)
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Quantitation of Aflatoxin Metabolites (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1 and AFG2) in Food Commodities and Their Diminution with Various Detoxifying Agents Introduction 1.1. Mycotoxins The mycotoxins are extreme toxic metabolites produced by certain fungi that can infect and proliferate on various agricultural commodities in the field and or during storage [1]. The occurrence of these toxins on grains, nuts and other commodities susceptible to mold infestation is influenced by environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, and extent of rainfall during the pre-harvesting, harvesting, and post-harvesting periods. Mycotoxins may exhibit various toxicological manifestations; some are teratogenic, mutagenic and /or carcinogenic in susceptible animal species and are associated with various diseases in domestic animals, livestock, and humans in many parts of the world [2] . . The naturally occurring toxins such as mycotoxins pose profound challenges to food safety. Mycotoxins are substances produced by moulds that contaminate various agricultural commodities either before harvest during harvest and under post harvest conditions (WHO, 1999). 1.2. Aflatoxin The mycotoxins of public health importance within the region are aflatoxin [3]. Aflatoxin are secondary metabolites with high toxic and carcinogenic properties produced predominantly by three species of mould Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus parasiticus and Aspergillus nomius, that are widely distributed in nature and form aflatoxin at temperature ranging from 12 to 42oC and relative humidity higher than 80% [4] . The discovery of aflatoxins dates back to the year 1960 following the severe outbreak of the turkey ‘X’ disease in the UK which resulted in the deaths of more than 100000 turkeys and other farm animals [1]. The cause of the disease was attributed to a feed containing Brazilian peanuts which were heavily infested with A. flavus. Subsequent analysis of the feed using thin-layer chromatography (TLC) revealed that a series of fluorescent compounds later termed aflatoxins were responsible for the outbreak [1] - [3]. The main responsible chemical forms toxin metabolites were identified as aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, G2, and M1. 1.1. Aflatoxin Physical Properties The classification of the indices B and G is not structure-related and has its origin in the color of the fluorescence under UV-light (B=blue and G=green) while structural differences of the terminal furan ring determine the numerical index. M1 is the predominant metabolite of AFB1 in milk from lactating humans and animals that consume AFB1-contaminated food or feed Hence, the name aflatoxin, an acronym has been formed from the following combination: the first letter, ‘A’ for the genus Aspergillus, the next set of three letters ‘FLA’, for the species flavus, and the noun ‘TOXIN’ meaning poison [5]. Table 1.1 Physical Properties of Aflatoxins Metabolites. | Aflatoxins | Mol. formula | Mol. Weight(g) | M.P oF | | B1 | C17H12O6 | 312 | 265-269 | | B2 | C17H14O6 | 314 | 286-289 | | G1 | C17H12O7 | 328 | 244-246 | | G2 | C17H14O7 | 330 | 237-240 | | M1 | C17H12O7 | 328 | 299 | | M2 | C17H14O7 | 330 | 293 | link to download complete download
THE POST-COLD WAR EUROPEAN MILITARY-INDUSTRIAL COMPLEX, THE ESDP AND EU’S SPACE POLICY
In this study will be analyzed whether the European Union (EU) stated ambition of being able to manage autonomous military operations is realistic unless it develops satellite networks that can operate independently from America’s space assets and, in turn, whether it is realistically conceivable to create a common European military presence in the space given US antagonist strategic perspectives and given national interests and commitments to the NATO. A major issue-area, where the distribution of economic leverage, technological capabilities, military power and political influence can be investigated, is, in fact, national space policy. Through the analysis of EU private, national and supranational initiatives –with a specific focus on the relations between EU’s defense industry and the European Security and Defense Policy (ESDP) –, I will investigate whether the redistribution of military space capabilities and perceived security needs, following the collapse of the bipolar world order, is favoring the emergence of a European space actorness complementary to NATO structures.
I shall then assess whether this ambition is (or can be) enshrined in a wise legal framework designed to avoid an escalating offence-defense spiral, as space security is pre-eminently an issue of global security. The understanding of the evolution of the national, regional and international legal framework in response to these ‘geopolitical’ dynamics is thus crucially important. A strong and unified political Europe with a technologically advanced and comprehensive defense and intelligence assets, enshrined in a wise legal overarching framework, could open the door to an innovative and autonomous foreign policy.
THEORIES OF INTERNATIONAL POLITICS AND NON-STATE ACTORS
My understanding of the history of space security and how states have pursued it is rooted in specific starting assumptions on the nature of the international system, the main aim of states, the most effective currencies of power, the role of technology and of non-state actors. Even though since the end of the Cold War, US supremacy in the global distribution of economic, technological and military assets has remained unchallenged, international actors such as China, Russia and Japan, along with the EU member states, are redefining their relative position within the post-1989 world politics hierarchy. The American hegemony is not declining, thus, but a redistribution of capabilities is occurring at the lower levels of the world politics hierarchy. Furthermore, non-state actors—particularly in the defense industry—begin to emerge as major players and complicate traditional patterns of great power dominance in space. I will thus take into account both state and non-state actors in the analysis of the past two decades evolutions of the planetary distribution of military space capabilities. Evidence will be brought from official documents – national, supranational and private sector’s initiatives since 1991 –, existing literature, author’s interviews, and an internship in the European Defense Agency and/or in the Aerospace Defense Industries Association of Europe.
THE DEFENSE INDUSTRY AND DEMOCRATIC ACCOUNTABILITY
Since the end of the Cold War, a number of major trends have led to the restructuration of Europe’s defense market. Reduced defense budgets; spiraling costs; technological and industrial trends that are blurring the distinction between defense and other industries, such as electronics and information technology making it increasingly difficult to define “defense industries” strictu sensu; a wave of mergers and acquisitions in the United States that produced aerospace and defense giants with turnovers several times greater than those of national champions in Europe. The defense companies’ strategies in facing these new trends have been characterized by concentration and internationalization. It seems that the future of EU defense industry will be defined by an increasingly complex tapestry of national and supranational political initiatives and transnational firms and joint ventures. The evolution of EU supranational initiatives in the security realm and the common market-driven dynamics mean that space assets are assuming an unprecedented supra- and trans-national role in Europe. The most striking aspect of this new European-wide industrial landscape is what could be defined as a “reversal of roles”: in this twin movement towards greater Europeanisation of defense matters it is no longer governments that are steering European cooperation on armaments but industry itself that is moving ahead of political constraints and adapting them, precipitating change and now acting as a driving force in the implementation of a common defense. This study will thus investigate the risks associated to this increasingly strong and influent military-industrial complex for a transparent and democratic decision-making.
If the redistribution of power that is taking place since the end of the bipolar system has allowed some room for maneuver for an increased European weight in world politics, then this opportunity has to be managed wisely and in a forward-looking perspective. A powerful Europe without such an overarching legal framework would simply translate state’s thirst for relative gains onto a super-state level and raise international relations’ distrust and insecurity. On the contrary, a weak Europe wouldn’t even be in the position to propose such legal arrangements, as traditional power politics would crush national initiatives. Without a balance of power and without a sustained and stable understanding between major powers on their conduct of mutual relations, then the ‘softer’ elements of international order (international law, international organizations…) will be as so many castles in air. Balance of power can be seen as a means of constraining and restraining the most powerful and would-be hegemonic; as an inducement to moderation and restraint in foreign policy; and, finally, as an essential background condition for the operation of international law and institutions. Rebalancing the planetary distribution of power together with the proposition of cooperative legal frameworks aimed at preserving global security may be a historically important contribution toward a paradigm shift in international relations.
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thesis about non cooperative games all post with picture but you can download with pdf file
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CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCHY
A. Location of Research
This research will be conducted at English Department of Tarbiyah Faculty IAIN-SU. Which is located in Jl. William Iskandar V Medan Estate. This location is the writer choose because :
1.The location is not so far from the writers house.
2.The students have difference educational background before studying at Tarbiyah Faculty.
1.The location of this research has the education that complete and also the lectures that quality. Tarbiyah Faculty deed some ways, in cluding take lectures to join the post graduate work program (S-2). The lecture has done since 1986. Some of thosewho have followed it :
In 1986: 1. Prof. Dr. H. Haidar Putra Daulay in Yogyakarta.
2. Dr. A. Djafar Siddik, M.A in Yogyakarta.
In 1988 : 1. Dr.H. Fachruddin Azmi, M.A in Yogyakarta
2. Drs. Syaiful Akhyar, M.A. in Yogyakarta
In 1990 : 1. Drs. Nurdi, M.pd in yogyakarta
2. Drs. Askolan Lubis, M.A in Yogyakarta
In 1991 : 1. Drs. Syaukani Hasbi, M.Ed, Adm in Adelaide Australia
2. Drs. Hasan Asari, M.A. in Montreal Canada
In 1994 : 1. Drs. Suprayetno.W, MA in Canada
2. Dra. Retno Sayekti, M. Lis in Canada.
And also many lecturer that Quality such as : Drs. H. Sokon Saragih, Drs.H.M. Daud Ibrahim, Drs. Fahrur Razy Dalimunthe, Drs. Abdurrahman Is, Drs. Mahmud Aziz Siregar, Dr. Zubaidah, M.A, Drs. Syahrum, Mpd, ect.
B. Population and Sample
Population is the total number of people living some where.( As Hornby,1995 : 897 ) Population is also a group of people, which become object of research. Based on the definition above, the population in this research is students of Tarbiyah English Department of IAIN Nort Sumatra. In English Department, there are fourth semester, each semester divided into fourt classes ( TBI-1,TBI-2, TBI-3 and TBI-4 ) for second semester and third semester, and two classes ( TBI-1 and TBI-2 ) for fourth semester and seventh semester ; the number of the students each semester as follows :
Sample is a part of population. According to Suharsimi Arikunto : If the subject less than 100 it is better to take all of them, but if the subject more than 100, it may take between 10-15 % or 20-25 %. So this research takes sample 12 % from 397 students : 50 students. The sample is the studentsof sixth semester at Tarbiyah English Department in IAIN Nort Sumatra, 25 students from TBI-I and 25 students from ` TBI-2.
Furthermore, this research uses purposive sample, which done by taking subject based on certain purpose. Some consideration of taking sixth semester as sample are :
1.The students of sixth semester have enough experience in using English
2.The students had learned about reading comprehension at fourt semester, it is assumed that they already have ability Reading comprehension.
3.The students also have been taught about grammatical, it can be deduct from any error in grammar.
C. Instrument of Collecting Data
Intrument of collecting data is a tool, which is used to collect data in a research. The instrument of data used is in this research are :
a. Interview
b. Observation
c. Test
d. Documentation
D. Technique of Collecting Data
Besed on the technique of instrument, after the writer gives the instrument to the respondent, it will be collected. Then it is collected based on the kind of it.
a.Interview
The writer uses this technique to collect the data by interviewing the head master and English teacher to acquire some information related to the topic of this research.
b. Observation
Observation took place in teaching-Learning process in the classroom, the researve the motivation of the students, their attitude and behavior in teaching process.
c. Test
There are many kinds of tests, one of them is multiple choice or objective test. Objective test is short answer achievement test. There are many kind of objective test, they are :
1. True false items
True false question, that the students are asked to determine true answer or false.
2. Completion items
Completion items is a question which the students must to complete in answering by using word form.
.3. Multiple choice
Multiple choice items is a question in choising form that the students gives the possibility answer. ( Depdikbud, pedoman penulisan, 1989 ; 16 )
A set of test given to the students, the test was arranged according to the main object that will get in reading texts. The form of test is objective test that are consist of 20 items. All the question are multiple choice.
d.Documentation
Documentation method means searching data concerning some cases or variable, it may take from : note, book, the paper, magazine, agenda, ect.
E. Operational Definition of Variabel
To avoid misinterpret with this research, it will clarify the definition related to this research. In this research there are two variable, they are :
1.Variable I ” Skimming technique in reading comprehension’’ the indicators are:
a.Skimming technique is a technique used to look for the ‘ gist ‘ of what the outhor is saying without a lot of detail
b.Skimming technique is used after a person has already carefully studied and she needs to reviewthe major ideas and concepts.
c.Skimming technique is used if one only wants a priview or an overview of the material to students is as an alternative way to increase the students’ achievement.
2.Variable II. “ The students’ achievement’’ the indicators are :
a.The students’ express the ideas well in reading
b.The students’ have high understanding about Reading Comprehension
c.The students’ have high score in Reading
F. The Technique in Analyzing Data
To know the influence of skimming technique in reading comprehension, it is used the steps :
a.The writer will collect the answer sheet and the next gives the score.
b.The writer will use the formula “ t “ test, with fisher formula :
Explanation:
M1 : mean of X1 (experimen group)
M2 : mean of X2 (control group)
∑X1 : multiplication of score deviation of X1
∑X2 : Multiplication of score deviation of X2
N1 : Number of sample from experiment group 1
N2 : Number of sample from experiment group 2
How to Write a BA Thesis a practical guide from your first ideas to your finished paper Charles Lipson 1 introductionMost students write a thesis for a very simple reason: it’s required to grad- uate with honors. In some schools, it’s required for all graduates. Even so, the thesis is different from other requirements—more demanding and much more rewarding. Most requirements focus on specific courses, per- haps an introductory course on statistics, social structure, or American fic- tion. There is not much you can do if the class is at 9 .., the subject is bor- ing, or the professor drones on, oblivious to your snoring. 1 Your thesis, happily, is different. It is in your hands. You will work with an adviser, of course, but you will ultimately select your own topic and do most of the work yourself, independently. You can start at 9 .. or 9 .., skip work entirely some days, or study straight through the weekend. You own it. That’s the good news and the bad news. To select a topic, you have to think about what truly interests you, and probably meander a bit before you settle on the right path. Once you have decided on a general subject— say, marriage and divorce in nineteenth-century fiction—you need to hone it down to a manageable size. That might be “The Scar of Divorce in the Fiction of Henry James and Edith Wharton.” In international studies, your broad interest in America’s wars might lead to a thesis on “The Evo- lution of American Air Power in Kosovo, Afghanistan, and Iraq.” These
for all students: read in month 1
1. One student recalls just such an experience: “Dr. Duncan’s lectures [on medical
matters] at 8 o’clock on a winter’s morning are something fearful to remember.
Dr. Munro made his lectures on human anatomy as dull as he was himself.... I at-
tended Jameson’s lectures on Geology and Zoology, but they were incredibly dull. The
sole effect they produced on me was the determination never as long as I lived to read a
book on Geology or in any way to study the science.” The student was Charles Darwin.
Despite the dreadful lectures, he grew more interested in these subjects and, apparently,
even conducted some independent research and writing. Charles Darwin, The Auto-
biography of Charles Darwin and Selected Letters, ed. Francis Darwin (New York: Dover,
1958), 12, 15.topics capture your general interests and encourage you to grapple with
them, but they are not too large and unwieldy. They are feasible thesis top-
ics because they allow you to do the necessary research and then enter the
conversation with your own ideas.
This reading, research, and writing builds on your previous work: your
courses and seminar papers. Together, they lay the foundations for a
longer, more challenging project: your thesis. If doing a thesis seems harder
than your earlier work, it is also more satisfying. As you select your topic,
you can explore issues that interest you deeply. As you move gradually from
reading and research to writing and revising, you can develop a real sense
of mastery. As you work out your perspective and begin writing, you can
develop your own distinctive voice. In all these ways, your thesis is the cap-
stone of your undergraduate education. And it is something more: a vital
step toward lifelong learning, where you will always pick your own subjects
to explore.
Because your thesis requires independent work, it is useful to have a
guide, a mentor by your side. That’s what this book is. It is designed to help
you and your adviser as you proceed along the trail, from selecting a good
topic to turning in your final draft, with a sigh of relief. My goal is to offer
suggestions you can use at every stage of your work.
One of the challenges of writing a thesis is that you need to combine a
lot of tasks: selecting a topic, reading the best books and articles, conduct-
ing sustained research, arriving at your own viewpoint, planning your
paper, writing a first draft, and then revising and polishing it, all while
managing your own time. This is not a 100-meter dash. It is a hike through
the woods, requiring a variety of skills and some persistence.
This book will guide you past the mileposts, flag the main issues, warn
you about the stumps along the trail, and give you some brief, practical ad-
vice about each aspect of the project. If you want more details on some, I
will point you to the best sources. But I will keep this book focused on the
main issues so you can focus on your primary goal: completing your own
best thesis, one you find satisfying to work on and pleased to turn in.
For now, let me begin with some reassurance, based on years of work-
ing with thesis students. You’ve made it this far, and you can complete your
thesis. In fact, you can complete a thesis you’ll be proud of. You just need
to approach it thoughtfully and stick with it. If you are committed to that,
you’ll do just fine
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Abstract WLAN hat in sämtliche Bereiche des öffentlichen Lebens Einzug gehalten. Der neue Standard WiMAX wird in Zukunft bei der Entwicklung von regionalen Netzen eine große Rolle spielen. Die Planung solcher Funknetze mit einer flächenhaften Abdeckung gestaltet sich als schwierig. Ziel dieser Arbeit ist es, einen Überblick über neue WLAN- und WiMAX- Standards zu geben. Es soll weiterhin der Stand von Forschung und Entwicklung von Modellen und Algorithmen zur Planung von Funknetzen dargestellt und untersucht werden, wie diese speziell für den WiMAX-Standard genutzt werden können. Außerdem sollen schon bestehende Projektierungstools für WLAN-Funknetze untersucht werden. Darauf aufbauend soll ein eigenes Tool konzipiert werden mit dem sich Funknetze, im speziellen WiMAX- Netze, auf der Grundlage der zuvor untersuchten Modelle und Algorithmen planen lassen.
Introduction
Research motivation and aim
This research thesis was made in the context of the “Computer Aided Network Design
Utility” (CANDY). The project runs at the institute of computer science at the Technical
University of Dresden. It is dedicated to the development of a tool that enables also non-
network-experts to configure a network by themselves. The programme will include different
tools. One part is dealing with the special requirements of radio networks. In order to
guarantee interoperability amongst the tools a new language has been worked out which is
called “Network Design Modelling Language” (NDML). NDML is based on XML grammar.
In order to meet the special requirements of radio networks RadioNDML was suggested.
The task of this thesis was to analyse the functionality of existing network design programmes
and to develop a concept for a radio network planning tool.
Structure
This thesis deals with the planning and modelling of wireless networks. The first section is
about the basics of network planning. It is supposed to give an impression of all necessary
steps of radio network planning and therefore of the software requirements.
In the second part an overview above the specifications of the IEEE 802.11 and IEEE 802.16
standards shall be presented.
The third and forth chapter will give an overview about current wave propagation and
visualisation models. The aim is to find a suitable model for all applications and wireless
standards in the radio network part of the CANDY project.
Furthermore already existing WLAN design tools are to be examined. Therefore a closer look
towards the options that are nowadays provided by those tools is taken. The section will finish
with a table naming the advantages and disadvantages of each programme.
In the sixth part of this thesis a concept for the radio network design tool that will be needed
in the CANDY project is suggested. Hence the knowledge about the previously examined
tools is combined with the facts about network design and special requirements of CANDY in
order to achieve a concept how the radio network tool might work.
The seventh section will suggest some extensions to RadioNDML.
The last part gives an outlook about future development.
1 Basic knowledge in radio network planning
Network planning consists of several tasks. At the beginning an initial proposition of the
hardware - like antennas and base stations - is to be found. The next steps are the optimisation
of cost, capacity, coverage, complexity and the signal-to-noise-ratio. Unfortunately one
cannot be done without neglecting another. If the capacity of the network is for example
supposed to be rather high the complexity and the costs of the system will increase. Therefore
it is important to define one’s priorities before starting to plan a network.
Also network planning cannot be done simply at a computer since all the calculations are just
estimations of the real world. Hence it is necessary to do a radio frequency survey after the
radio network simulation. This means that there has to be a temporary installation of the
selected hardware solution in the environment at the predetermined location.
1.1 Fresnel Zone
The Fresnel Zone covers the area around the line of sight (LOS) in which radio waves are
propagated after they left the transmitting antenna. It describes several elliptical areas. In
radio networks normally just the first elliptical area is considered to be the most important
one. There are also the 2nd, 3rd and .... Fresnel Zone. All odd numbers represent the
amplifying signal superposition and all even numbers the weakening signal superposition. It
can be calculated with the following formula:
f
d
r
4
32 . 17 ∗ =
r radius in metres
d distance in kilometres
f frequency in GigaHertz
3
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Background of Study
In learning language context there are four skills that students are expected to be able to do, comprehend and interpreted text correctly, but most of the students have less motivation to learn it, event the teachers have taught them in many ways, but in this thesis the writer focus on the way in teaching reading. As Hornby (1995:968) state that reading is action who reads a way in which something is interpreted and understood.
Actually reading is not an easy process because it involves the work eye and brain almost to get information or massage from the text so that to make the students be able to read effectively and efficiently, the teachers should prepare the good strategy and method in teaching English, especially in reading as mentioned in the holly Qur'an An-Nahl verse 125. It says.
$äí÷Š$# 4’n<Î) È@‹Î6y™ y7În/u‘ ÏpyJõ3Ïtø:$$Î/ ÏpsàÏãöqyJø9$#ur ÏpuZ|¡ptø:$# ( Oßgø9ω»y_ur ÓÉL©9$$Î/ }‘Ïd ß`|¡ômr& 4 ¨bÎ) y7/u‘ uqèd ÞOn=ôãr& `yJÎ/ ¨@|Ê `tã ¾Ï&Î#‹Î6y™ ( uqèdur ÞOn=ôãr& tûïωtGôgßJø9$$Î/ ÇÊËÎÈ
Meaning:
"call unto the way of thy lord with wisdom and fair exhortation, and reason with them in the better way. Lo! Thy lord is the best aware of him who strayed from his way, and he is best aware of those who go aright (Q.S. An-Nahl: 125)
From the verse above, we know that teachers should be use the good method when they are teaching; in order the st6udents will be easy to understand the subject. In the processes of learning
There are many ways in learning and teaching to students such as SQ3R, Speed Reading, Silent Reading, Shared Reading, and Active Reading, in this thesis the writer focus on two ways, Shared Reading and Active Reading.
In shared reading, a group may shared the reading of the text that is relevant to the topic, all the students will be able to practice in the group learning activities based on the information in the text. It focuses on the meaning, fun, enjoyment and allows them to relate it back to their own experience or their own word.
While in active reading, it porously doing by the reader, as Dougles brown (1994:293) state that the reader may use skimming with quickly running one’s eye across whole the text to get the gist, skimming gives the reader advantage of being able to predict the purpose of the passage the main topic or massage and possibly some developing or supporting ideas. The reader also uses scanning to searching for some particular piece or peaces of information in a text. Scanning exercises may ask the readers to look for names or date, to find a definition on key concept or to list certain number of supporting details. The purpose of scanning is to extract certain specific information without reading the whole text (293).
Based on the preliminary observation, the writer found many students in SMP.N 1Bukit Mas Besitang have problem in comprehending text and most of the English teacher can not improve their ways in teaching English, it can be showed by the students are less practice English at home, less motivation in learning English, lack of vocabulary, low motivation in reading comprehension.
To sum up there are some reasons using those techniques, such as: they are good for improving the students’ ability in reading comprehension, and it is concerning with consideration that the teacher should make improvement on the way they teach.
Based on the background state above, it is interesting to conduct and research on “THE EFFECT OF SHARED READING AND ACTIVE READING ON STUDENTS’ ABILITY IN COMPREHENDING TEXT AT SMP. N 1 BUKIT MAS BESITANG.
The writer hope both the methods can motivate the teacher to increase their ways in teaching English and the students’ interest in learning English, especially in reading comprehension.
Identification of Problems.
Based on the background of study mentioned above the problems can be identified as follows:
English teacher are mostly using traditional ways in teaching reading comprehension.
The students have low motivation in English.
Most of the students have low ability in reading comprehension.
English teacher can not improve their ways in teaching English.
Limitation of problems.
Because of the limitations of the writer, besides economy, time, power, so the writer will limit the study on the effect of shared reading technique and active reading on the students’ ability in comprehending reading descriptive text.
Formulation of study.
The formulation of the problems by making some relevant questions to answers as follows:
How is the students’ ability in comprehending text by using shared reading technique?
How is the students’ ability in comprehending text by using active reading technique?
Is there any significance difference of shared reading and active reading on the students’ ability in comprehending text.
Objective of Study.
The objective of the study are:
To know students ability in comprehending text.
To know students interest in comprehending text.
To investigate the significance difference of shared reading and active reading on the students ability in comprehending reading descriptive text.
Significant of Study.
As it is describe in the object of the study above, this study also expected to have significant contribution to the following:
1. For the principle of SMP N 1 Bukit Mas Besitng, to give the direction to the
English teacher about the English method that is suitable to the students’
situation and the materials of the study that can improve the students’
interesting English, especially in English.
2. For English teacher to take batter to improve the students’ interest in reading.
3. For the students’ to increase their motivation and interest in studying English.
4. For other researchers who want to further researcher on the same subject.
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BAB I PENDAHULUAN Negara-negara yang telah melakukan sensus seperti Indonesia telah diyakini perkembangan yang cepat dalam informasi-informasi yang berhubungan dengan jumlah, komposisi dan karakteristik lainnya. Analisi dan penggunaan dari pada data tidak selalu sejalan akibat dari ketidak lengkapan atau kerusakan dari pada kaompilasi data, untuk mendapatkan metode-metode agar bias mentranformasikan data yang tidak lengkap tetapi mempunyai nilai-nilai yang potensial yang berarti bagi pencernaan baik secara nasianal maupun regional menjadikan suatu kompilasi dari pada data maupun gambar yang lebih mempunyai arti guna pengukuran pertumbuhan penduduk dan migras, ketenaga kerjaan yang perlu bagi produksi ekonomi dan pola kecenderungan social sebagai refleksi perubahan komposisi dan karakteristikdari pada penduduk untuk maksud tersebut mengumpulkan bahan-bahan dan memberikan riset dalam kependudukan.
Defenisi Penduduk
Kependudukan berasal dari kata penduduk,
• Penduduk adalah setiap orang yang bertempat tinggal disuatu daerah ataui wilayah yang ada pada saat dilakukan sensus menetap selama 6 bulan atau lebih.
• Penduduk adalah semua orang yang menetap disuatua daerah tertentu dalam waktu yang tertentu
• Menurut Prof.Binarto,penduduk adalah yang mempunyai unsure jumlah pertumbuhan ,kepadatan,persebaran dan mata pencarian.
• Menurut sutarjo Kartoha dikosumo
Penduduk adalah suatu masyrakat yang bertempat tinggal disuatu wilayah tertentu.
• Menurut George W. BARCLAY
Penduduk adalah sejumlah masyarakat,biasanya akan hidup atau menetap lebih lama.
TEKNIK ANALISA PENDUDUKAN
DI INDONESIA
A. LATAR BELAKANG MASALAH
Faktor pertambahan penduduk saja tidak akan menimbulkan masalah,apabila pertambahan penduduk ini dapat diimbangi oleh daya dukung ekonomi dan daya dukung lingkungan serta kemampuan memenuhi kebutuhan hidup,sehingga terdapat keseimbangan antara jumlah penduduk dengan tingkat kebutuhan dan produksi nasisonal (Rizal fahrul dkk,2006:136)
Masalah kekurangan pendudukan akan menimbulkan masalh kurangnya tenaga kerja. Indonesia dalam hal ini mengalami dua sisi masalah mengenai tenaga kerja. Pada satu sisiterjadi kelebihan tenaga kerja,sehingga tenaga kerja/angkatan kerja melebihi tenaga yang dibutuhkan oleh pangan kerja yang ada. Pada sisi lain mengalami kekurangan tenaga kerja,terutama sekali dalam kaitannya dengan keterampilan dan keahlian yang dibutuhkan dalam suatu lapangan kerja. Dari kedua masalah ini menyebabkan timbulnya masalah dalam hal pembagian kerja,antara lain penempatan tenaga kerja berdasarkan kepentingan bukan atas dasar kebutuhan.
GAMBARAN PERTUMBUHAN
Kependudukan Dunia
Sejarah pertumbuhan Kependudukan (manusia).
Dalam mempertimbangkan tentang sejarah pertumbuhan penduduk (manusia) itu,pertama-tama kita harus dapat menetukan,apa yang kita artikan dengan”manusia” itu? Orang/manusia secara jelas adalah berasal dari sesuatu keturunan,tetapii kita bagaikan belum jelas memiliki gambaran tentang mata rantai dari manusia pertama nenek moyangnya.
(M Heer David. 1985:3)
Grafik penduduk ada 3 macam bentuknya:
1. Berbentuk kerucut ( limas ) atau pyramid.
Golonan penduduk usia tua (jompo) usia 59 tahun
Golongan penduduk dewasa (produktif ) usia 15-59 tahun
Golongan penduduk usia muda ( nonproduktif) usia <15 tahun
Grafik penduduk berbentuk kerucut ini menggambarkan sebagian besar penduduk berada dalam golongan penduduk usia muda ( contoh garafik penduduk di Indonesia).
2. Berbentuk Batuy nisan.
Gamabar ini menunjukkan kepada kita bahwa sebagian besar penduduknya berada dalam golongan penduduk dewasa, atau dapat dikatakan penduduknya sudah stationer ( stabil ) berarti negara-negara yang mempunyai grafik penduduk seperti ini umumnya sudah makmur.
Contoh ; Amerika Serikat
3. Berbentuk Guci terbalik ( Granat )
Bagi Negara yang mempunyai grafik penduduk seperti granat ini, menunjukkan jumlah penduduk pada usia muda sudah sama dengan jumlah penduduk dewasa, bahkan yang lahir sudah sangat kecil sekali, sehingga ada kalanya Negara seperti ini takut kekurangan penduduk. Contoh : Swedia
Dua Kerangka Penganalisa Sebab Musababpertambahan Penduduk
Yaitu angka atau kecepatan kelahiran dan angka atau kecepatan kematian..
Pada dasarnya penduduk dunia tidak akan bertambah jika angaka kelahiran tidak melampoi angka kematian,dan terbesar dari perbedaan kedua angka tersebut ( tentang bagi angka kelahiran ) akan merupakan angka pertumbuhan atau pertambahan penduduk dunia. Analisa dengan menggunakan kerangka pada titik kedudukan ini dapat memberikan gambaran mengenai unsure-unsur yang dapat mengubah angka-angka kelahiran dan kematian.
Permasalahan penduduk di Indonesia selalu dikaitkan kepada tingkat pertumbuhannya. Yang tinggi dan penyebarannya,tidak merata. Sehubungan dengan berbagai permasalahan yang ditimbulkannya, ada beberapa usaha yang dilakukan pemerintah,baik dalam bentuk program maupun dalam bentuk gerakan. Dalam bentuk program, diaman usaha dan aktivitasnya berasal dari pemerintah sendiri,sedangkan dalam bentuk gerakan,usaha dan aktivitasnya berasal dari masyarakat.
Berdasarkan uraian diatas, maka penulis berkeinginan untuk menulis tentang kependudukan dengan judul “ TEKNIK ANALISA KEPENDUDUK”.
B. RUMUSAN MASALAH
Sejalan dengan dengan latar belakang diatas,maka yang menjadi ruang lingkup dalam penelitian ini adalah mengenai kependudukan dalam masyarakat.
Adapun beberapa rumusan masalah sebagai :
1. Bagaimana memastikan berapa jumlah penduduk dari penambahannya?
2. Bagaimana factor yang mempengaruhi penduduk?
3. Bagaiman upaya pengendalian jumlah penduduk?
C. TUJUAN PENULISAN
Secara umum yang akan menjadi tujuan dalam penulisan makalh ini adalah sebagai berikut:
1. Kependudukan ( penduduk ) adalah “ setiap orang yang sudah tinggal menetap sekurang-kurangnya selama 6 bulan atau lebih ‘ kependudukan yang penulis maksudkan disini adalah bertambah atau berkurangnya penduduk ditempat dimana nenetap.
2. Teknik analisa adalah “ Cara menganalisis” yang penulis maksudkan mengetahuai kepadatan wilayah dan mengetahui kepadatan penduduk.
BAB II
PEMBAHASAN
A. Makna Demografi
Demografi adalah ilmu pengethuan yang mempelajari tentang jumlah,persebaran teriorial dan komposisi penduduk serta perubahan-perubahan yang biasanya disebabkan oleh kompenen-kompenen demografi yaitu: Kelahiran,Kematian,gerak teritorial ( migrasi )dan mobilitas social ( perubahan status dalam masyarakat).
1. Angka kelahiran (natalitas)
Contoh cara mengetahui :
Yaitu angka yang menunjukkan berapa oaring bayi yang lahir hidup dari 1.000 penduduk tiap tahun.
Contoh :
Di daerah A, angka kelahiran = 15 ini berarti dari 1.000 penduduk didaerah A tersebut lahir 15 orang bayi dalam setahun.
Tingkat kelahiran suatu Negara dapat dibedakan :
• Tingkat kelahiran tinggi,jika angka kelahiran lebih dari 30.
• Tingkat kelahiran sedang,jika kelahiran anta 20-30.
• Tingkat kelahiran rendah, jika angka kelahiran kurang dari 20.
2. Angka kematian ( Mortolitas) yaitu angka yang menunjukkan berapa orang bayi yang mati dari 1.000 penduduk tiap tahun.
Untuk mengetahui angka kematian penduduk di suatu Negara dapat digunakan bermacam-macam ukuran diantaranya dengan menggunakan CDR ( Crude Detah Rate ) Yaitu jumlah kematian dari setiap 1.000 orang penduduk per tahun.
Contoh : Jumlah penduduk Negara A Tahun1993 adalah
5 juta oaring, jumlah kematian pada tahun itu 50.000 orang.
Maka untuk menghitung CDR-nya adalah :
50.000
X 1.000 = 10
5.000.000
Tinggi rendahnya tingkat kematian disuatu daerah atau Negara tergantung pada :
Factor keamanan, kalau dalam keadaan perang tentu tingkat kematian akan tinggi,akan tetapi kalau keadaan aman, tingkat kematian akan rendah.
Factor kesehatan, tingkat kesehatan yang rendah dapat mengakibatkan wabah penyakit, yang menimbulkan tingkat kematian tinggi.
Tingkat kematian bayi digolongkan :
• Tingkat kematian tinggi, jika angka kematian bayi lebih dari 75
• Tingkat kematian sedang,jika angka kematian bayi antar 35-75
• Tingkat kematian rendah,jika angka kematian bayi dibawah 35.
3. Migrasi
Migrasi adalah perpindahan penduduk dari suatu daerah ke daerah lain .
1. Pandangan Mengenai Kependudukan dari segi demografi.
Gambaran mengenai jumlah penduduk secara berurutan biasanya disebut ‘ demografi “ dalam hal ini jumlah penduduk dipandang sebagai kumpulan manusia,dan perhitungan disusun menurut berbagai bentuk statistic tertentu.
Demografi selalu berkaitan dengan perilaku kumpulan aggregate a9 atau bagian dari kumpulan itu ),dan sama sekali tidak ada hubungannya dengan prilaku setiap individu.
Masalah yang selalu mendapat perhatian para ahli dititik beratkan pada segi proses penggantian ( process of replacement ). Sejumlah penduduk biasanya akan hidup lebih lama dibandingkan dengan penduduk secara individual.
Hal ini berarti pada setiap keanggotaan akan senantiasa menjalani perubahan secara konstan. Ada orang-orang tertentu yang yang meninggal setiap tahun,sedangkan lain malah dilahirkan. Selain itu ada juga sekelompok penduduk yang berkurang atau bertambah karea migrasi. Factor-faktor tersebut bias disebut vital,dan hal ini desebabkan karena ada sarana –sarana tertentu dimasa penduduk akan bertambah sehingga eksistensinya tetap ada. Pertumbuhan,pengurangan atau tetapnya jumlah penduduk dan ini merupakan suatu keseimbangan yang memadai yang merupakan akibat dari pada factor-faktor yang hubungan yang sederhanan ini merupakan salah satu factor demografi yang terpenting. Sementara itu ada dua aspek utama dari pada perilaku penduduk yaitu : Komposisi kumpulan penduduk dan perubahan-perubahan tertentu yang terjadi selama periode pbservasi.
Komposisi dicerminkan oleh distribusi penduduk diantara beberapa kategori standart tertentu. Sedang dilain pihak perubahan akibat dari berbagai “peristiwa’ yang dapat menanbah atau mengurangi jumlah penduduk. Atas dasar alas an inilah maka kelahiran dan kematian sering disebut” peristiwa –peristiwa vital “ ( Vital events) migrasi,perkawinan, perceraian dan peristiwa-peristiwa lain kadang-kadang disebut juga peristiwa vital meskipun sebenarnya tidak lebih dari pemindahan penduduk dari kategori yang lain didalam penduduk yang sama.
Ada dua jenis data dasar mengetahui jumlah penduduk :
1. Enumerasi ( pencacahan 0 setiap orang yang ada di dalam sesaat. Data tersebut biasanya diperoleh dari sensus,dimana seluruh penduduk dihitung satu persatu pada suatu saat yang atau hamper bersamaan.
2. Bentuk ststistik yang lain adalah catatan dari semua peristiwa vital, yang pada umumnya merupakan peristiwa yang terjadi didalam satu tahun kalender. Pengumpulan data tersebut dilakukan dengan cara registrasi yang diusun untuk mencatat semua peristiwa-peristiwa tertentu ( misalnya kelahiran,kematian,migrasi,perkawinan,dan perceraian ) yang terjadi.
2. Teknik study kependudukan
Bagaiman caranya agar data dapat dianalisa ? penerapan perhitungan ststistik dapat dihitung sangat singkat yaitu :
a. Perhitungan mengenai pengukuran yang bersifat konvensional 9 untuk suatu jumlah penduduk atau suatu kelompok didalam jumlah kelompok tertentu).
b. Perbandingan pengukuran-pengukuran tersebut ( dengan cara menilai mana yang lebih tinggi dan mana pula yang lebih rendah )
c. Perkiraan tentang nilai-nilai tertentu yang biasanya tidak selalu tersedia lengkap boleh dikatakan semua .Kegiatan riset didalam bidang didasarkan atas proses tersebut diatas.
Cara-cara khusus untuk menghitung jumlah penduduk :
- Dihitung dari jumlah penduduk yang benar-benar ada pada suat saatt ertentu ( “ de facto population )
contoh : Rumus D
DP = X N
P
DP : Jumlah Penduduk Seluruhnya
D : Jumlah Penduduk Daerah Sampel
P : Jumlah Pemilih tiap Daerah Sampel
N : Jumlah Pemilih Seluruhnya disuatu Negara.
Contoh : D = 12 Juta P = 5,7 Juta N = 57 Juta
12
Maka DP = X 57 Juta = 120 Juta.
5,7
- Dihitung dari penduduk yang berada ditempat “biasanya “ ( atau de jure population ).
3. Topik Study Kependudukan
Peneyelidikan mengenai kependudukan ada beberapa diantaranya :
- Studi Mortolitas
- Mengukur kasus Mortolitas
- Akibat pertumbuhan atau penurunan jumlah dari pada penduduk
- Mengetahui Migrasi penduduk, migrasi dikaitkan dengan perubahan stuktur penduduk.
- Membicarakan tentang masalah tenaga kerja ( Man Power ) secara agak luas.
Statistik ketenagakerjaan membagi pekerja menurut status kedalam lima golongan, yakni : Pertama, golongan yang berusaha sendiri tanpa dibantu orang lain. Kedua, golongan yang berusaha dengan dibantu pekerja,keluargaatau buruh tidak tetap. Ketiga, golongan yang berusaha dengan dibantu buruh tetap. Keempat, buruh atau karyawan. Kelima, pekerja keluarga.
Pada umumnya pendapatan pekerja yang rendah dikarenakan produktivitasnya rendah. Produktivitasnya yang rendah dipengaruh oleh beberapa hal,antaran lain; kurangnya pendidikan/keterampilan ; kurangnya sarana penunjang ; rendahnya tingkat kesehatan dan gizi ; rendahnya tingkat upah ; dan system pengupahan yang tidak merangsang karyawan untuk bekerja lebih baik .
B. Jenis Pertumbuhan Penduduk
1. Pertambahan Penduduk Alami
Pertambahan penduduk alami adalah pertambahan penduduk yang jumlahnya diperoleh dari selisih kelahiran dengan kematian.
Di Indonesia angka kelahiran adalah 33, berarti tiap 1.000 penduduk, bayi yang lahir adalah 33, masih tergolong tinggi. Sedangkan angka kematian adalah 12 pada tahun 1980. pada tahun 1992 angka kelahiran diindonesia diperkirakan 24,9 perseribu penduduk.
2. Pertanbahan penduduk migrasi
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